hofstede cultural dimensions masculinity vs femininity

The generation born after 1980 scorescontrolling for GDP per capita and country-fixed effects25 points higher on Individualism and Joy and 17 points lower on Trust compared with the generation born between 1900 and 1920 (on a 0-100 scale). In contrast, those in low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible. Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. As concerns DistrustTrust, the prediction is ambivalent because a shift from existential pressures to opportunities is supposed to increase horizontal trust in other people but to decrease vertical trust in hierarchical institutions. In addition, there are 16 countries with one item missing in the construction of the first dimension (13 countries in which Question 1live to make parents proudwas never asked, and 3 countries in which Question 5on jobs and preference for own nationalswas never asked). Our re-examination of three of Hofstedes dimensions should not be seen as an effort to legitimize his approach in general, nor are we suggesting that Hofstede is right and other cross-cultural frameworks are wrong. We observe a similar pattern in our WVS-EVS analysis. 7.One should note, however, that similar absolute distances mean lower relative distances at higher levels: the same absolute age distancesay 5 yearsmeans a smaller relative distance at higher ages, not only mentally but purely mathematically: a 10 years old sister is 2 times older than her 5 years old brother, but when these siblings have reached the ages of 55 and 50, the same absolute age distance shrank from a ratio of 2.0 to 0.1. By contrast, there is (c) no clear shift from Distrust toward Trust or vice versa, no matter how socioeconomic development proceeds. Power Distance versus Closeness reflects the extent to which people reject (Distance) or appreciate (Closeness) hierarchies and the authority of a few over the many. research pertaining to cultural dimensions in the workplace. Individualist cultures replace the individuals dependence on particular support groups, especially family and acquaintances, by a more anonymous form of dependence on impartial institutions and universal norms. We discuss the implications for cross-national cultural research. One reason for the disapproval is the discovery that the WVS-Schwartz values have considerably less explanatory power than Survival versus Emancipative Values as conventionally measured by the WVS. This is the reason why generalized interpersonal trust, impartial governance, rule of law. p The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. After establishing that first order autocorrelation (AR1) is present, we control for AR1 by estimating a panel-fixed effects model where we correct our standard errors for any kind of serial autocorrelation and/or heteroscedasticity. Inglehart and Welzel (2005) have summarized these findings in a revised theory of modernization. Welzel (2013) has developed this theory further into an evolutionary theory of emancipation, pointing out some key qualifications of emancipatory value change. Gelfand, Erez, and Aycan (2007) provide an almost exhaustive overview of cross-cultural organizational behavior and psychology. The minimum of 15 years reduces the sample size considerably. For a more detailed discussion of these points, see Welzel (2013, chapter 6). Such an approach would work in a single or two-country study (e.g., Egri & Ralston, 2004), but it is practically impossible to define generations in each country based on each countrys unique historical and political experiences when the sample includes more than 10 countries. These cohort-specific effects capture the generational shift conditional on the level of economic development and unique country-specific factors. This dimension is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised. 15.We cannot perform a Granger causality test or use de-trending techniques because we have large N and small T in our panel data. (2006) qualitatively reviewed 180 empirical studies using Hofstedes dimensions published in 40 business and psychology journals and book series between 1980 and 2002. 10.There is only one WVS-EVS question that correlates (.93) with the Masculinity dimension. Superiors and subordinates are unlikely to see each other as equals in the workplace, and employees assume that higher-ups will make decisions without asking them for input. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.org. Former Soviet Union (N = 15; Nrespondents = 81,978) include Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, and Ukraine (only the score of Russia [46] is known for the first cohort). Despite this shift toward Joy, young people in ex-communist countries are still more duty-oriented than young people in advanced postindustrial democracies. 7:00AM and 4:00PM CEST The evolutionary logic in the works of Inglehart and Welzel predicts a generational shift from orientations dominant under pressing existential threats (i.e., survival orientations) toward orientations dominant under abundant existential opportunities (i.e., emancipative orientations)to the extent to which socioeconomic development indeed changed objective living conditions that way. In its fifth and sixth rounds, the WVS also included a condensed 10-item version of the Schwartz values. Over a period of at least 15 years, these countries score higher on Individualism and Joy, and lower on Trust. Proponents of multiple modernities, by contrast, insist that cultural differences along civilizational faultlines will prevail, if not increase in what Huntington (1996) described as a clash of civilizations.. Note: Advanced postindustrial democracies (N = 25; Nrespondents = 153,868) include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmarka, Finland, Francea, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italya, Japan, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United States. The Cool Water condition captures very well the unique thermo-hydrological configuration of Northwestern Europe and its oceanic offshoots in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan is the worlds most masculine society, with a rating of 95, while Sweden is the most feminine society, with a rating of 5. For binomial items, we take the fraction of respondents in the respective reference category. The final result is shown in Table 6. The writings in sociology and political science on cultural change are dominated by modernization theory, predicting that continued economic development goes together with predictable changes in norms, values, and beliefs (Bell, 1973; Flanagan, 1987; Inglehart, 1971, 1990, 1997; Inkeles, 1960; Inkeles & Smith, 1974; McClelland, 1961; Nash, 1964; Welzel, 2013). Tables 2 and and33 summarize the final set of items and the pairwise correlations between each of the 15 items and country scores on the original Hofstede dimensions. This dimension looks at how much a society values traditional masculine and feminine roles. Alternative frameworks and dimensions of national culture have appeared since, such as the Globe study (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004) and most notably the Schwartz Personal Values Inventory (Schwartz, 1994, 2004). That is not the point of this article. Orr and Hauser (2008) note Hofstedes questionnaire were not originally designed to measure culture but workplace satisfaction. In the following, we demonstrate to what extent the country-specific factors in these three dimensions are explained by a host of temporally remote drivers of history currently discussed in the development literature. Cross-national research on cultural differences across space and time intersects multiple disciplines but the prominence of concepts varies by academic fields. Beugelsdijk S., Kostova T., Kunst V. E., Spadafora E., van Essen M. (2018). Sage): Beverly Hills, CA. By imputing scores for these single items in these 16 countries, we are able to generate scores on all three dimensions for 102 countries (vs. 86 countries). Making Sense of Cross Cultural Communication. Email: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (, ONLINE_APPENDIX_final Supplemental material for Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart, GUID:08293F7A-C497-4190-AD31-59B6B0A38C81. Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap: Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. From Hofstede (2001), Cultures Consequences, 2nd ed. This depiction is a most serious misinterpretation. Hofstedes data collection procedure and sample has been questioned on grounds of representativeness (Baskerville, 2003; McSweeney, 2002, 2009). There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. In the remainder, we prefer to use the three item-based Distrust-Trust dimension to maximize country coverage. Femininity is seen to be the trait which stress caring and nurturing behaviors, sexuality equality, environmental awareness, and more fluid gender roles. The datasets we use are the WVS and the EVS. By contrast, the country-specific scores in DistrustTrust are uncorrelated with those in the other two dimensions. Moreover, we select only those items that have been included in all waves, as our cohort analysis requires a longitudinal dataset. This variable measures the combination of periodically, albeit not permanently, frosty winters with mostly mild summers under steady rain and other permanent fresh water sources. Other scholars have suggested to re-label this dimension individual freedom vs individual development and intrinsic (work related) vs extrinsic (non-work related) (Gelfand, Bhawuk, Nishii, & Bechtold, 2004) or self-orientationwork orientation (Brewer & Venaik, 2011). For each of the three dimensions, we plot the cohort scores for the earliest survey year possible (1980 for DistrustTrust and 1990 for CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy) and the latest year (2010). This is clearly reflected in the two generations socialized under the communist regime (1940-1960, and 1960-1980) that have the lowest score on the DistrustTrust dimension. Long-versus short-term orientation: new perspectives. Finally, a replication of Hofstedes study, conducted across 93 separate countries, confirmed the existence of the five dimensions and identified a sixth known as indulgence and restraint (Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). Workaholism is another expression of their Masculinity. There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. According to Hofstede insights (Satam, Saddam & Ali, 2018), Nigeria scored 60% culturally in Masculinity and 80% in Power Distance. We also include the 45 line. This revised theory of modernization predicts that national cultures change, but that relative country rankings do not. Of these 20, nine need to be dropped because of very limited coverage across waves (typically only one or two waves are covered in those nine cases). People set their own goals rather than looking to fulfill the expectations of others (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995; Welzel, 2013, chapter 6). Among the various characteristics that group people into collectivities of a shared identity, the nation is still among the most powerful ones. Hofstede initially identified four dimensions. This limits the number of items substantially. As mentioned, country scores on the fifth and sixth Hofstede dimension are already based on WVS-EVS items. Value orientations from the World Values Survey: How comparable are they cross-nationally? This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise these two existential goals differently. Flanagan (1987) argued early on that Ingleharts narrow concept of postmaterialism presses into single dimension things that are in fact dimensionally distinct: namely, postauthoritarian liberalism and postmaterial idealism (see also Welzel, 2007). The vertical axis shows the score on this dimension for the last survey wave. Oxford University Press, USA. Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. As Hofstede himself argued, any replication of the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension should be closely associated with national measures of interpersonal trust (Minkov & Hofstede, 2014, p. 165). We also observe a change in the direction of less trust and more distrust, but these changes are relatively small compared with the cultural change observed for Individualism and Joy. Because of their culture, it makes Japan becomes a powerful country because men will work hard for making a lot of money for their family, and it is one of the reason that make the business in Japan grows rapidly. This logical link underlies the close empirical connection. But as soon as people feel safe, they begin to prioritize freedom because freedom is essential to thrive, in allowing ingenuity, creativity, and recreational pleasure. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. The reason why these additional questions are excluded from the new dimensions is their limited availability across waves and/or countries. We select items that are limited to preferences and beliefs, thus excluding questions on objective facts, like the number of children in the household.9 We select those countries from the WVS-EVS for which the same question has been asked to a substantial number of respondents (Uz, 2015). Ranking of 40 countries from most to least indulgent (reproduced from Jandt, 2016: 175). The selection of the variables is based on the set of ecological factors identified by Varnum and Grossmann (2017) as deep determinants of cultural change, complemented by variables taken from the literature on remote determinants of socioeconomic and human development (e.g., Murray & Schaller, 2010; Parker, 2010; Spolaore & Wacziarg, 2009). General information What is the perfect Organisational Culture? Vertical distance from the Isoline indicates the amount of change. aFor the first cohort, items are unavailable for these seven countries and/or the number of respondents is less than 100. All three figures suggest that cultural change occurs and that societies generally tend to move in similar directions. Become a WITI Member and receive exclusive access to attend our WITI members-only events, webinars, online coaching circles, find mentorship opportunities (become a mentor; find a mentor), and more! While the country scores for the four original dimensions are derived from surveys conducted at IBM, the scores for the latter two dimensions are calculated from data of the WVS. These cohort dummies increase for CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy, and they decrease (i.e., more negative) for DistrustTrust. We exclude Vietnam here given its very high (outlier) score on the DistrustTrust dimension (see the online appendix for additional information). This research is guided by a conceptual model that is underpinned by theories of Hofstede (1984) cultural dimensions, and service quality drawn from management context. which score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. As a result, this second dimension correlates very high with IVR (.92) and moderately high with LTO (.35). Inglehart (1971, 1990, 1997) was the first to document a massive generational shift in cultural orientations among the public of affluent Western democracies, from a priority on existential security (i.e., materialist values) toward a priority on expressive freedom (i.e., postmaterialist values). This is an important conclusion in light of the criticism that such distance indices received (Kirkman et al., 2006; Shenkar, 2001). Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned The WVS-EVS items that correlate positively with country scores on Individualism versus Collectivism correlate negatively with Power Distance versus Closeness and vice versa. WITI is redefining the way women and men collaborate to drive innovation and business growth and is helping corporate partners create and foster gender inclusive cultures. Moreover, human existence is upwardly directed on the utility ladder of freedoms: we are evolutionary hard-wired to stay on the lower rungs where we prioritize security only as long as necessity dictates such stagnation, but we climb toward the higher rungs where we seek freedom as soon as opportunity allows for this ascension. Moreover, and more important in our context, the 20 items used to generate the two dimensions on the InglehartWelzel world map of cultures only generate two dimensions when one actively enforces the extraction of exactly two dimensions (Welzel, 2013). This particular finding is not surprising because the Individualism versus Collectivism dimension can be found in all cultural frameworks (i.e., Hofstede, Schwartz, Globe, Welzel). Below, we correlate these country-specific factors for the three dimensions with a series of exogenous variables related to precolonial opportunity endowments embodied in geography and subsequent colonial histories (a detailed overview of these variables and their sources can be found in Online Appendix Table A8). In summary, there are pronounced residual variances in our three cultural dimensions that remain unexplicable by contemporary country characteristics. In educational settings, people from countries high in uncertainty avoidance expect their teachers to be experts with all of the answers. The Hausman test (Greene, 2008) for fixed versus random effects model confirms that the fixed effect model is the preferred method compared with a random effects model (2 = 20.44, p < .000; full details can be found in Table A7 in the online appendix). Schedules are flexible, hard work is undertaken when necessary but not for its own sake, precision and punctuality do not come naturally, innovation is not seen as threatening. Passive tourist activities For example, individualism vs. collectivism can help explain why some cultures place more emphasis on personal achievement than others. Hofstedes dimensional concept of culture, to begin with, dominates in cross-cultural psychology and international management. BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester. Vertical distance from the Isoline indicates the amount of change. This dimension focuses on how extent to which a society stress achievement or nurture. Using the results of the unbalanced panel (Models 3, 6, and 9), a comparison of GDP per capita in Cohort 5 between the United States and Thailand (the sample average) shows that the higher level of economic development in the United States is associated with a 5-point difference in CollectivismIndividualism (the United States is 5 points higher), and a 14-point difference in DutyJoy (the United States is 14 points higher). However, the results of the A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life. Psychological review, 96(3), 506. People in societies classified by a high score in Indulgence generally exhibit a willingness to realise their impulses and desires with regard to enjoying life and having fun. Long Term vs. Short-Term Orientation China Countries in italics are used in the first cohort (N = 15; Nrespondents = 108,064). A second point of critique concerns the labeling of the dimensions and the associated face validity of their content (Minkov, 2018). Table A3 in the online appendix provides all measurement details of the selected items.10 The correlational wave-averaged analysis yields a set of 15 items that fulfill all of the above criteria, that is, considerable country coverage, multiple wave coverage, attitude-based, and significantly correlated with country scores on the four original Hofstede dimensions or included to calculate country scores in the fifth and sixth dimension. Building Your Network. This dimension reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with their anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. People within these cultures also tend to be more emotional. Masculinity-femininity cultural dimension is addressed as a societal, not an individual's, characteristic and "refers to the distribution of values between the genders " (Hofstede, 2011). Masculinity vs. femininity refers to a dimension that describes the extent to which strong distinctions exist between mens and womens roles in society. Predicting cross-national levels of social trust: Global pattern or Nordic exceptionalism? We do so by taking the GDP per capita ratio of each country relative to the GDP per capita of Yugoslavia in the third cohort, and use that ratio to calculate the score for the second cohort using the score on Yugoslavia for the second cohort. For Denmark, France, and Italy, the first item is missing, and the number of observations for the second item is 94, 88, and 75, respectively. They dislike ambiguity. This raises the question of whether these remote historic drivers can account for significant variance portions in country-specific factors andif yesfor how much. The low score for ex-communist societies is not surprising given the notorious inefficiency of the Soviet system before it collapsed. In other words, these data may not be representative. Cultures Consequences (Vol. Hofstedes cultural values or dimensions provide a framework through which sociologists can describe the effects of culture on the values of its members and how these values relate to the behavior of people who live within a culture. The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine). Lastly, communication tends to be more direct in individualistic societies but more indirect in collectivistic ones (Hofstede, 1980). Indeed, many of the conclusions are based on a small number of responses. Culture and organizations. Beugelsdijk S., Kostova T., Roth K. (2017). Although the item to observation ratio becomes rather low in such a factor analysis, this does suggest that the Masculinity dimension is unique to Hofstedes framework. Trust and economic growth: A robustness analysis. Why is managing Cultural Diversity important? A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. Finally, the restraint and indulgence dimension considers the extent and tendency of a society to fulfill its desires. Psychological review, 114(1), 133. People are defined more by what they do in individualistic societies while in collectivistic societies, they are defined more by their membership in particular groups. For reasons explained in the main text, we drop Items 9 and 12 from the analysis. The Masculine side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success. Interestingly, the time trend has affected the older cohorts in the earliest survey more than the younger cohorts, for which reason the cohort differences appear evened out at the latest survey. . Without being clearly demarcated, different generations are associated with different values. Low-income countries (N = 7; Nrespondents = 37,330) include Egypt, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Peru, Philippines, and Vietnam. Hampden-Turner, C., & Trompenaars, F. (1997). Similar to the Developing Societies, the average income in the ex-communist countries increased threefold, though at an absolute lower level. These items capture the notion of Power Distance as well. Power Distance Index | Individualism | Masculinity | Uncertainty Avoidance Index | Long-Term Orientation, How cross cultural differences caused Korean Airlines problems, Iphone app Geert Hofstedes 5 cultural dimensions, Learning to Understand China : Personal experience. A persons self-image in this category is defined as I., In contrast, collectivist societies place greater importance on the goals and well-being of the group, with a persons self-image in this category being more similar to a We.. Societies high in masculinity are also more likely to have strong opinions about what constitutes mens work vs. womens work while societies low in masculinity permit much greater overlapping in the social roles of men and women. We summarize the criticism raised in the context of their theories. (2010) included. The weaknesses in the conceptions of Hofstede and Inglehart are complementary, raising an unanswered question: Does the evolutionary logic of cultural change suggested by Inglehart and Welzel apply to a better validated set of cultural dimensions inspired by Hofstede? With the above limitation in mind, our main findings regarding cultural change can be summarized as follows: It needs to be emphasized that our analyses have been conducted at the group level, which is the level at which culture operates in shaping the norms and beliefs of individuals. Hofstede: Masculinity / Femininity. A tendency toward a relatively weak control over their impulses is called "Indulgence", whereas a relatively strong control over their urges is called "Restraint". Sparked by Jared Diamonds (1997) epic Guns, Germs and Steel, this literature (for an overview, see Spolaore & Wacziarg, 2009) focuses on historically remote factors at the origin of long-lasting, highly inert country trajectories that stretch well into the present. Geert Hofstede, in his pioneer study looking at differences in culture across modern nations, identified four dimensions of cultural values: individualism-collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity-femininity. The STATA command we use is xtreg depvar indpvars, fe, cluster(country). The alternative is to apply a DriscollKraay estimator (the xtscc command in STATA), but this results in smaller standard errors and larger t values. So these two cultures share, in terms of masculinity, similar values. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind. 29-31). Where femininity is the complete opposite being described as more to do with feelings that can be seen as a dominant feature and status such as caring for others and quality of life. Specifically, we apply Ingleharts intergenerational change thesis to a set of cultural dimensions inspired by Hofstedes work. A response bias and outlier analysis can be found in the online appendix. Country scores for the fifth and sixth dimension, Long-Term (vs. Short-Term) Orientation (LTO) and Indulgence versus Restraint (IVR), have been added later. The reason is simple: at the later point in time, the population is composed to a larger extent of the higher scoring younger cohorts on Individualism and Joy and to a lesser extent of the lower scoring older cohorts. The assertive pole has been called masculine and the modest, caring pole feminine. Accordingly, these residuals reflect more remote determinants of country trajectories, such as precolonial factor endowments and colonial legacies. achievement However, Hofstede (1991) changed the name of this dimension using the more general label of Long-Term (vs. Short-Term) Orientation. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies [1] Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory. Additionally, as Orr and Hauser (2008) point out, Hofstedes dimensions have been found to be correlated with actual behavior in cross-cultural studies, suggesting that it does hold some validity. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The values of a short-term society are related to the past and the present and can result in unrestrained spending, often in response to social or ecological pressure (Hofstede, 1980). They tend to belong to fewer groups but are defined more by their membership in them. In fact, Welzel (2013) even shows evidence for divergence, as those countries having been ahead in matters of emancipation already decades ago moved even faster toward more emancipation, Scandinavia and Sweden being the clearest cases in point. Although this approach reduces sample size considerably, it allows us to explore (a) life cycle effects, (b) cohort-replacement effects, and (c) time-trend effects in separation. The difference between Individualism and Collectivism is by no means one of affiliations per se but of the form of affiliations that prevail. Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles Advancing Your Career. What have we learned about generalized trust, if anything? We delegate additional material to an online appendix for length considerations. The correlation between the country score of this third dimension with additional WVS-EVS items shows (see Table 5) that countries in which people tend to have higher levels of trust and confidence also feel that work is a duty toward society, position themselves on the left of a political scale, and feel that democracies are good at maintaining order. Using a variety of psychometric techniques commonly used in cross-cultural and comparative social science research, we are able to re-examine Hofstedes dimensions of national culture for 110 countries using WVS-EVS data.

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